Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies recent issues

Taken on Faith? The Impact of Uncertainty, Knowledge Relatedness, and Richness of Information on Entrepreneurial Opportunity Exploitation

Wood, M. S., Pearson, J. M. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

This article develops a theoretical model that suggests that differential levels of uncertainty, knowledge relatedness, and richness of information will have a substantial impact on the decision to engage in entrepreneurship. Effects of the individual differences fear of failure and general self-efficacy are also considered. Using a metric conjoint methodology, respondents are asked to evaluate a series of profiles with different levels of each attribute and then indicate their willingness to invest in an entrepreneurial opportunity. This approach allows for the calculation of main and interaction effects as well as the importance of each factor in the investment decision. Results indicated that all three factors and their interactions play a significant role in the decision to engage in entrepreneurial action. The degree of opportunity-related uncertainty was found to be the most important factor in the decision-making process.

The Emergence of Business-to-Consumer E-Commerce: New Niche Formation, Creative Destruction, and Contingency Perspectives

Tangpong, C., Islam, M., Lertpittayapoom, N. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

This study examines the emergence of business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce from new niche formation, creative destruction, and contingency perspectives. Based on multiretail-sector data, this study supports the contingency perspective. The findings suggest that in digitally related sectors, B2C e-commerce has emerged through a creative destruction process whereby B2C e-commerce expands at the expense of traditional retailing; thus, addressing the e-commerce trend becomes traditional firms’ strategic imperative. Conversely, in digitally unrelated sectors, B2C e-commerce has emerged through a new niche formation process whereby B2C e-commerce coexists with traditional retailing; thus, embracing the e-commerce trend becomes the traditional firms’ strategic choice.

Leader's ICT Usage's Influence on Follower's Positive Work Attitudes Via Perceived Leader-Follower Relations

Borekci, D. Y. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

In this study, leader’s information and communication technology (ICT) usage in conducting business and in communication is indicated as having influence on follower’s positive work attitudes through the mediation of perceived leader-follower relations. Mediated regression analyses were conducted based on the followers’ perceptions data. The study revealed that ICT usage by leader affects follower’s perceptions related to his or her relation with his or her leader, which in turn influence follower’s positive work attitudes such as loyalty, trust, satisfaction, and perceived distributive justice.

Perspectives of Senior-Level Executives on Effective Followership and Leadership

Agho, A. O. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

Using a three-page questionnaire administered to a sample of 302 senior-level executives, this study examined the perceptions of executives on the distinguishing characteristics of effective leaders and followers. Most of the characteristics associated with effective leaders were perceived to be different from those associated with effective followers. A significant number of the respondents agreed that (a) leadership and followership are interrelated roles; (b) leadership and followership skills have to be learned; (c) effective leaders and effective followers can influence work performance, quality of work output, satisfaction and morale, and cohesiveness of work groups; and (d) researchers have not devoted enough attention to the study of followership.

The Importance of Perceived Task Difficulty in Goal Orientation--Assigned Goal Alignment

Gerhardt, M. W., Luzadis, R. A. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

This study investigated the moderating effect of perceived task difficulty on the relationship between goal alignment and task performance. Using a sample of 131 participants, the relationship between trait learning goal orientation, assigned goal condition, and task performance was assessed. Results indicated that goal alignment was not significantly related to task performance overall. Perceived task difficulty did significantly moderate this relationship.

Exploring Dispositional Resistance to Change

Saksvik, I. B., Hetland, H. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

The aim of the study was to explore the relationship between Oreg’s recently developed scale on Resistance To Change (RTC) and its four sub factors and personality traits of the Five Factor Model (FFM). The sample consisted of 259 participants. Findings revealed that neuroticism correlated positively with the RTC Scale, while extraversion, openness to experience and agreeableness showed negative correlations with the RTC scale. Neuroticism correlated positively with three of the RTC sub factors, Routine seeking (RS), Emotional reaction (ER), and Short-term thinking (ST) respectively. Extraversion correlated negatively with the same three factors. Openness to experience correlation negatively with RS, while agreeableness correlated negatively with RS and ST. Conscientiousness correlated negatively with ST, but positively with RS. A regression analysis supported most of these findings. Use of the RTC scale could have special implications for managers in organizations making them more aware of diversity among employees.

Measuring the Outcomes of Leadership Development Programs

Black, A. M., Earnest, G. W. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

The lack of research evaluating the outcomes of leadership development programs and the lack of a suitable evaluation instrument are evident in the literature. This study represents the first attempt at providing a comprehensive method to evaluate and measure leadership development programs on a post-program level. Social learning theory, adult learning theory, and the EvaluLEAD framework influenced the theoretical model developed in this research. The EvaluLEAD principles provide a basis for the conceptual model and results in the development of a program evaluation instrument named the Leadership Program Outcomes Measure. Finally, the application of this measure to one statewide leadership development program is presented.

Maneuvering Space for Leadership

Espedal, B. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 01:53:25 PDT

The leadership literature reveals that the top executives of organizations need room to maneuver in order to affect organizational performance and adaptiveness. This article examines the basis for this conventional wisdom. The approach is first and foremost theoretical; however, illustrative data from a case study are also included. The discussion shows that maneuvering room for leaders is comprised of structural, social, and cognitive factors that provide guidelines and set constraints for leadership action. At the same time, leaders can be learning agents that influence and shape these aspects. Thus, guidelines and constraints represent both the conditions and the objects for leadership decision making and action.

Editors' Commentary

Peluchette, J. V. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

Distrust in Leaders: Dimensions, Patterns, and Emotional Intensity

Keyton, J., smith, F. L. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

Without prompting, stratified randomly selected employees addressed communication improvements at their manufacturing facility. More than one quarter expressed distrust in their leaders. Responses were coded with two distrust conceptualizations: the opposite features of Butler and Cantrell's trust dimensions and Bies and Tripp's actions that violate trust. Narratives were also coded for target of distrust and language intensity. Narratives exposed the communication-distrust link proposed by scholars, reinforcing the behavioral foundation of distrust as a psychological construct. Results challenge the position that distrust is the opposite of trust. Peaks of language intensity occurred for various single dimensions and combinations of distrust dimensions.

A Process Model of Organizational Change in Cultural Context (OC3 Model): The Impact of Organizational Culture on Leading Change

Latta, G. F. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

Change resides at the heart of leadership. Organizational culture is one of many situational variables that have emerged as pivotal in determining the success of leaders' efforts to implement change initiatives. This article introduces a process model of organizational change in cultural context (OC³ Model) derived from ethnographic analysis. The model delineates the differential impact of organizational culture at every stage of change implementation. Eight stages of cultural influence are identified and illustrated. Research propositions are stated to encourage refinement of the model. Theoretical and practical implications for leadership are explored; applications for resolving organizational immunity to change are discussed.

Organizational Change and Characteristics of Leadership Effectiveness

Gilley, A., McMillan, H. S., Gilley, J. W. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

The existing literature suggests that numerous variables affect a leader's effectiveness. In this study, the authors examine behaviors associated with leadership effectiveness in driving change. Results indicate that specific leader behaviors—the ability to motivate, communicate, and build teams—are predictors of successful implementation of organizational change.

The Effects of Organizational Learning Culture, Perceived Job Complexity, and Proactive Personality on Organizational Commitment and Intrinsic Motivation

Joo, B.-K., Lim, T. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

This article investigated the effect of personal characteristics (proactive personality) and contextual characteristics (organizational learning culture and job complexity) on employees' intrinsic motivation and organizational commitment. Employees exhibited the highest organizational commitment when they perceived higher learning culture and higher job complexity. Employees were more intrinsically motivated when they showed higher proactive personality and perceived higher job complexity. The perception of their job complexity partially mediated the relationship between organizational learning culture and organizational commitment and the relationship between proactive personality and intrinsic motivation. Overall, organizational learning culture, proactive personality, and perceived job complexity accounted for 44% and 54% of the variances in organizational commitment and intrinsic motivation, respectively. In addition, proactive personality moderated the relationship between organizational learning culture and organizational commitment. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and recommendations for further research are discussed.

Understanding the Impact of Proactive Personality on Job Performance: The Roles of Tenure and Self-Management

Gerhardt, M., Ashenbaum, B., Newman, W. R. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

The current study investigated the moderating impact of job tenure and the mediating process of self-management on the relationship between proactive personality and performance. Using a sample of 95 sales executives, results indicated a significant interaction between proactive personality and job tenure. In addition, there was an indirect effect of self-management behavior on the relationship between proactive personality and performance. Such findings suggest that a proactive personality may be differentially related to performance dependent on job tenure and that self-managing behaviors may be a key linking mechanism between proactive personality and performance. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.

The Bad News and the Good News: The Long-Term Consequences of Having Used an Alternative Work Schedule

Padgett, M., Harland, L., Moser, S. B. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

Research suggests that women who adopt alternative work arrangements may be viewed less favorably than women who work a regular schedule. This study examined whether those negative perceptions persist even after the woman returns to a regular schedule. One hundred twenty-five employed MBA students participated in an experimental study in which work schedule was manipulated. Participants reviewed a personnel file for a female employee who was either on a regular schedule or who had previously been on a reduced-workload schedule. They then completed a questionnaire assessing their perceptions of the target employee. Contrary to the authors' expectations, results revealed that the female employee who had previously been on an reduced workload schedule was actually viewed as having significantly greater advancement motivation and advancement capability than a female employee who had always used a regular schedule. She was also somewhat more likely to be recommended for a promotion.

Work--Home Conflict: A Study of the Effects of Role Conflict on Military Officer Turnover Intention

Heilmann, S. G., Bell, J. E., McDonald, G. K. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

This research examined work and family influences on military officers' retention decisions. Work—home conflict was used to predict retention decisions of military officers. Results indicated that work-related variables had insignificant effects on turnover intentions, a finding contrary to work—family literature that suggests work-related experiences are more likely to predict turnover intentions than family-related experiences. Family satisfaction with military life affected retention decisions, suggesting that members considered their families' satisfaction with military life above their own work-related attitudes. Results indicated that as family members' general satisfaction with military life improved, a corresponding positive effect on the members' willingness to remain in the service resulted.

The Influence of Cultural Empathy and Gender on Perceptions of Diversity Programs

Cundiff, N. L., Nadler, J. T., Swan, A. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 02:51:30 PDT

Because of changes in demography and the emphasis on diversity programming, organizational leaders need to understand how employees' empathy toward diverse groups affects diversity program perceptions. This study examines whether individual ethnic/cultural empathy toward diverse groups relates to intentions to attend and interest in diversity initiatives. The sample consisted of 294 college students at a moderate sized Midwestern University. There were moderate significant relationships found. Women and those higher in ethnic/cultural empathy reported higher behavioral intentions to attend and positive perceptions of diversity programs. Managers and human resource personnel could use these findings to assess the diversity climate of their organization allowing for better targeted interventions based on current workforce attitudes and levels of cultural empathy.

The Moderating Effect of Gender on Leadership Intervention Impact: An Exploratory Review

Avolio, B. J., Mhatre, K., Norman, S. M., Lester, P. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

A total of 57 intervention-based leadership studies that included sufficient data on leader and follower gender were included in this meta-analysis. By intervention, the authors mean any study where the researcher overtly manipulated leadership as the independent variable through training, assignment, scenarios, or other means. Results showed a significant difference in the effect sizes for leadership interventions conducted with all-male and majority-male participants versus all-female and majority-female participant studies; however, these differences varied based on the setting of the intervention, the theoretical basis of the intervention, and the type of outcome. Implications for further research on gender differences with respect to examining cause—effect impact of leadership interventions are discussed.

Connectivity and Leadership: The Influence of Online Activity on Closeness and Effectiveness

Kolb, D. G., Prussia, G., Francoeur, J. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

Learning to lead online is imperative for the future of leadership. Whether they like it or not, even if they prefer face-to-face interactions, leaders of the future must be able to develop a sense of closeness with others, whether they be down the hall or around the world. In this study, face-to-face residential workshops were matched with online sessions over an 18-month period. Data from 75 participants, ranging from 18-year-olds to senior corporate executives, suggest that levels of online communication are positively correlated to perceptions of closeness among peers and that the relationship between peer closeness and leadership outcomes is moderated by online activity.

In the Eyes of the Beholder: Transformational Leadership, Positive Psychological Capital, and Performance

Gooty, J., Gavin, M., Johnson, P. D., Frazier, M. L., Snow, D. B. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

This article develops and tests a conceptual model of followers' perceptions of transformational leadership as an antecedent to their positive psychological capital—a higher-order construct that represents an individual's motivational propensity and perseverance toward goals. Positive psychological capital, in turn, has in-role performance and organizational citizenship behavior as consequences. Structural equation modeling results support the relationship between followers' perceptions of transformational leadership and positive psychological capital, as well as the relationship between positive psychological capital and each performance outcome. Implications of these results are discussed regarding the literatures of transformational leadership and positive organizational behavior.

Emotional Intelligence as Moderator of the Surface Acting--Strain Relationship

Prati, L. M., Yongmei Liu, , Perrewe, P. L., Ferris, G. R. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

The authors examined the moderating role of emotional intelligence in the surface acting—strain relationship. Specifically, the authors hypothesized that higher levels of emotional intelligence were associated with a weaker relationship between surface acting and strain (i.e., depressed mood at work, somatic complaints). Results supported the hypothesized relationships, and the authors found that higher emotional intelligence attenuated the positive relationship between surface acting and depressed mood at work and somatic complaints. Implications of the results, limitations of the study, and directions for future research are discussed.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Reputation: Mediators in the Relationships Between Accountability and Job Performance and Satisfaction

Hall, A. T., Zinko, R., Perryman, A. A., Ferris, G. R. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

Holding people answerable for their actions captures the essence of accountability, which is one of the most fundamental constructs in the organizational sciences and, unfortunately, one about which little is known. This study formulated and tested a model that sought to explicate the intermediate linkages between accountability and job performance and satisfaction. Specifically, the hypothesized model suggests that accountability affects organizational citizenship behavior, which in turn influences job performance and satisfaction through personal reputation. Three alternative models were also examined, but the hypothesized model demonstrated the best fit to the data. Strengths and limitations of the study, directions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.

Pride and Gratitude: How Positive Emotions Influence the Prosocial Behaviors of Organizational Leaders

Michie, S. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

This study investigated whether two positive morally relevant emotions, pride and gratitude, were associated with the prosocial behaviors exhibited by organizational leaders. Pride and gratitude were measured as dispositional tendencies in leaders across various types of organizations. The results revealed that a leader's propensity to experience authentic pride was positively related to two types of prosocial behavior—social justice and altruism. Furthermore, the results indicated that leader gratitude mediated the effects of pridefulness on social justice behaviors.

Affecting Organizational Identity: A Manager's Influence

Prati, L. M., McMillan-Capehart, A., Karriker, J. H. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

Organizational identity is an important cognitive variable that not only affects how one feels about his or her membership in the organization but also determines the participant's behavior within the organizational environment. This article discusses the relationships of managerial emotional intelligence, relational coordination, and clan organizational culture in the establishment of subordinates' organizational identity. The emotional intelligence of managers plays a key role in how they administer organizational functions. Specifically, this article theorizes how the emotionally intelligent manager may use the strategic tool of relational coordination to influence the culture of the organization and the creation of strong organizational identity in followers.

Perceptions of Acceptability and Enforcement: Their Relationship With Employees' Behavior Concerning Alcohol

Lauver, K. J., Lester, S. W., Lentz, P. J. — Wed, 15 Apr 2009 12:04:06 PDT

In this article, two studies using both quantitative and qualitative techniques were used to examine how organizations can use policies and practices to help reduce the likelihood of employees coming to work under the influence of alcohol. Findings indicated that perceptions of currently employed students on the acceptability of being at work under the influence and the likelihood of enforcement of alcohol policies are related to employees' beliefs in how important it is to be coherent while at work and their likelihood of working with alcohol in their systems. Implications of these findings for employers are discussed.

From Discretionary to Required: The Migration of Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Turnipseed, D. L., Wilson, G. L. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

The distinction between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and required behavior remains questionable more than two decades after its conceptualization. To examine the conceptual confusion, OCB was assessed for consistency with the traditional definition. OCB perceived as owed to the organization was also identified. Results indicate that many OCBs are perceived as part of the job description, rewarded, and punished. This highlights the definitional problem: What is the theoretical and pragmatic difference between OCB and required behavior, or what does the label OCB mean? Assuming that OCB exists (perhaps at organization entry), it is argued to migrate from discretionary to psychologically required. Results are discussed in terms of role sending, leader—member exchange, and reinforcement by managers. Rather than reduce the worth of the OCB construct, we suggest that it remains valuable: discretionary, extrarole OCB may be a midpoint between a formal job description and expanded work behavior migrating to psychologically required.

Propensity to Trust and the Impact on Social Exchange: An Empirical Investigation

Bernerth, J. B., Walker, H. J. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

This study investigated the influence of individuals' propensity to trust on the relationship between supervisors and their subordinates. Specifically, the authors tested both the direct and interactional effects of supervisors' and employees' propensity to trust and perceptions of social exchange quality. Results indicated that managerial propensity to trust did not have a direct influence on perceptions of social exchange, but employees' propensity to trust was positively related to their perceived social exchange quality. Additionally, the interaction between managerial and employee propensity to trust indicated that the most positive exchange relationships were perceived to exist when both managers and employees were high in propensity to trust.

Authentic Leadership and Positive Psychological Capital: The Mediating Role of Trust at the Group Level of Analysis

Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., Avey, J. B. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

This study investigates the relationship between authentic leadership, trust, positive psychological capital (PsyCap), and performance at the group level of analysis. Data were collected from a small Midwestern chain of retail clothing stores, a context in which the needs for both authentic leadership and a positive sales staff are integral to the firm's performance. Constructs were aggregated to the store (group) level to test relationships between perceptions of authentic leadership, trust in management, positive psychological capital, and performance. Trust in management was found to mediate the relationship between PsyCap and performance and to partially mediate the relationship between authentic leadership and performance. Future discussions and implications are discussed.

Cultivating the Regulatory Focus of Followers to Amplify Their Sensitivity to Transformational Leadership

Moss, S. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

According to regulatory focus theory, one facet of transformational leadership might inspire only followers who direct their attention to their aspirations, called a promotion focus . Furthermore, followers focus their attention on aspirations only when they experience a sense of security. In this study, 160 employees completed a survey evaluating the leadership style of their supervisors and their own regulatory focus, self-esteem, attachment style, belief in a just world, and work engagement. Visionary leadership was positively associated with engagement in followers, especially when these individuals adopted a promotion focus. This promotion focus was related to factors that confer a sense of security—such as attachment style and just world beliefs—which in turn were associated with the leadership style of their supervisors. Findings imply leaders should first foster a sense of security in followers, which evokes a promotion focus and augments the receptivity of employees to a rousing vision of the future.

Transformational Leadership, Team Goal Fulfillment, and Follower Work Satisfaction: The Moderating Effects of Deep-Level Similarity in Leadership Dyads

Wolfram, H.-J., Mohr, G. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

The impact of deep-level similarity between managers (N₁ = 117) and followers ( N₂ = 403) on the interrelations between transformational leadership and outcomes was analyzed. The authors accounted for similarity in subjective meaning of work, occupational self-efficacy, and emotional irritation. Unexpectedly, the authors found a negative interrelation between transformational leadership and team goal fulfillment when followers scored higher than their managers on subjective meaning of work and when followers were more emotionally irritated than their managers. Thus, to increase transformational leadership's positive effects, managers should show appreciation of work values, and their followers' level of exhaustion should be kept to a minimum.

Do We Practice What We Preach?: An Exploratory Study About How Business Schools Manage Their Human Resources

Day, N. E., Peluchette, J. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

Using Pfeffer's typology of high-performance human resource management practices, this study examined faculty perceptions of how U.S. schools of business utilize such practices. Results show that faculty believe that most high-performance human resource management practices are used by their schools, particularly employment security, empowerment/self-management, and information sharing. Faculty perceive less attention being devoted to the use of training and development practices, competitive pay, and reward systems. Implications for business school management are presented, which include ensuring that deans and department chairs are trained in effectively managing faculty for achievement of business school missions and goals.

Integration-Responsiveness and Knowledge-Management Perspectives on the MNC: A Typology and Field Study of Cross-Site Knowledge-Sharing Practices

Kasper, H., Lehrer, M., Muhlbacher, J., Muller, B. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

This interview-based study of eight multinational corporations (MNCs) in five industries investigates varying patterns of cross-site knowledge sharing associated with MNCs pursuing global, multidomestic, and transnational strategies. The study revealed considerable polarization in knowledge-sharing practices between MNCs implementing transnational and global strategies, with cross-site knowledge sharing being of very high intensity among the former and quite minimal among the latter. MNCs pursuing global, multidomestic, and transnational strategies each tended to share qualitatively different kinds of knowledge as well. The relationship between MNC strategy and intrafirm knowledge sharing is encapsulated in a framework that bridges two hitherto largely separate research streams: the integration-responsiveness framework and knowledge-management studies of the MNC.

Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Characteristics Attributed to Entrepreneurs: A Three-Nation Study

Gupta, V., Fernandez, C. — Tue, 06 Jan 2009 12:59:58 PST

This study examines characteristics attributed to entrepreneurs in three countries and identifies similarities and differences in entrepreneurial characteristics across countries. Business students (N = 424) from India, Turkey, and the United States rated 92 descriptors of human attributes and behaviors. For each attribute, respondents rated how characteristic it was of an entrepreneur. We found that though some characteristics were attributed to entrepreneurs across national cultures, there were also important differences in characteristics attributed to entrepreneurs in the three cultures. Following from prior literature, we did not assume the North American perspective of the entrepreneur as universal, allowing us to better understand how people in different cultures view entrepreneurs. The identification of country-specific entrepreneurship concepts can be useful for researchers interested in studying entrepreneurship internationally and practitioners interested in encouraging and training entrepreneurs in different countries. Implications of our findings and directions for future research are discussed.